Defining the Role of the President of the United States as Outlined in Research Paper

Defining the Role of the President of the United States as Outlined in the US Constitution - Research Paper Example The President can appoint people to high-level positions of public administration. This role and power are enshrined and provided for in Section II of Article II of the Constitution where the Chief Executive can select top employees, subject to the approval of the Senate. Still, as the Chief Administrator, Section III of Article II bestows the power to make recommendations on fiscal policies on the President of the United States. The consideration of this article is always done in light of Article I of the US constitution which accords Congress the power to review taxes and spending. Nevertheless, the power to control the budget-making process is chief among the crucial administrative prerogatives of the President of the US. In this light, it is often the President who makes the decision on how and where the money is spent. At the end of the 1990s, the Office of the President took over a more significant function in determining federal spending. Section III of Article also extends the Office of the President of the United States the powers of a Chief Magistrate. Particularly, Section III of Article states that the President of the United States â€Å"†¦ shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  In a closely related wavelength, Section VII of Article I accords the President of the United States the powers of the Chief Legislator. This section of the US Constitution states that every bill which the Senate and the House of Representative shall pass shall be presented to the President of the United States prior to its becoming law. If the President approves the Bill, he shall append his signature to it. Otherwise, the President shall return the Bill to the House with his objections to it.  

The Principles Of Nursing And Health Care

The Principles Of Nursing And Health Care This assignment into principles of nursing and health will explore dimensions of health; it will give an insight to a person who has a condition called multiple sclerosis. Looked at will be what determinants of health are to this person. Underpinning professional, legal and ethical implications surrounding health should the individual require nursing care is of great importance. Finally the assignment will give a reflection of what information has been gained and health concepts on a personal level. 1 Dimensions of health Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. World Health Organisation (WHO 1946) cited in Naidoo (2009). Health means so many different things to different people, someone viewed as having a disease or disability can also feel like they are healthy, as can a person who is physical fit feel unhealthy. Dimensions of health determine health to each individual. There are six different dimensions of health which are; intellectual, physical, emotional, spiritual, social and environmental. Health is looked at as a whole and when being cared for, a holistic approach could be used taking into account all of the dimensions of health. Dimension in more detail are; intellectual this is when a person has the ability or inability to make decisions and judgements reasonably, understanding decisions and consequences of decisions. Physical health is what you can see the size, shape and body function. Emotional is when a pers on is empathetic towards other peoples feelings and has an understanding of their own, and can deal with all different types of emotions as and when they occur. Spiritual health can be having a belief in a god or religion however it has more of an impact on a persons ethics, peace of mind and principles. Social dimension is having relationships with all different types of people for example work colleagues, family and childhood friends. Environmental can be where a person lives and works it could be a poor area or poor working conditions. Across all the dimensions if one is affected this could have a knock on effect to other dimensions or all of them, they usually all go hand in hand, Brooker (2007). 2 Person overview To put principles of health into a reality and have an understanding an example could be an individuals health. Chosen as an example is David Anderson; David is fifty five year old male who was diagnosed with multiple sclerosis in his early thirtys. Multiple sclerosis is a condition which causes a defect in the central nervous system. The myelin sheath which surrounds the nerve fibres comes under attack from the autoimmune system, Corcos (2008). The disease is unpredictable and can affect different people in different ways. Usual symptoms are numbness in limbs, involuntary movements, lethargy, blurry or double vision the list goes on. Multiple sclerosis was identified by the French neurologist Jean-Martin Charcot in 1863 who worked in a hospital called Salptrire in Paris. He identified the condition as aclrose en Plaques, Burgess (2010) which mean hardening, this relates to the scaring which causes the damage to the nervous system. David has worked in the same job for over 30 years, it is an outdoor manual position where he walks for long periods of time in a country setting as well as working in a country setting he also lives four miles from his place of work and has no commuting stress. David has been married for 35 years he has three grown up children and three grandchildren. David enjoys spending time playing golf in the summer months and watching sports live and on the TV he also enjoys photography. Davids health has always been very good despite his condition; he has never been on medication other than over the counter analgesics and has never required any kind of treatment. At times the effects of his condition do show but in a very minor way which he has always coped on the surface extremely well. 3 Determinants Determinants are factors which may affect a persons health; this may be in a good way or a bad way, generally and in the health of the above person. Determinants are factors which influence how healthy a person is. These are socio-economic which are cultural and environmental for example where in the country the person lives, living and working conditions for example are the conditions good is there stress involved, social and community networks is there support in place in the community and socially, individual lifestyle factors for example if the person takes regular exercise and eats a balance diet, and age, sex and hereditary factors. Naidoo and Wills as cited in Brooker (2007). Determinants which affect David are difficult to identify, possibly determinants affect him in a positive way. David has a very good life style, and has had a steady job for a long time environmental factors have possibly enhanced the quality of life for David. He spends a lot of time outdoors and feels t his has a positive effect as for long periods of time he lives symptom free from his condition. Social and community factors again are strong in his family who surround him and the networks of doctors in the local GP office are also strong. Around the world the United Kingdom has one of the highest rates of multiple sclerosis in the world, Rog et al (2009) cited in Burgess (2010). It has been said by Ebers et al (2007) cited in Burgess (2010). One in one thousand people in the UK have MS. It has been shown in studies that the further away from the equator the higher the volume of people recorded to have MS. This could be due to the periods of time these areas have sunshine, a vitamin related to sunshine is vitamin D, the body requires sunlight to synthesize vitamin D this vitamin is found in most immune cells and is associated functions including inhibition of the production of cytokines this is known to have a negative effect in MS, Ponsonby et al (2005) cited in Burgess (2010). Sh etland and Orkney in the north of Scotland have the highest rate of cases in the world. Interestingly studies have also shown people who emigrate from country to country before the age of 15 will develop the risk from the country which they have settled in, if the move takes place after the persons 15th birthday it is said the person will retain the risk factor from the country they are originally from. Underpinning professional, legal and ethical principles. Nursing care may be required for David in time and there are a lot of factors to consider when any person is being nursed. Looked at are the underpinning professional, legal and ethical principles involved in nursing a patient. As a professional a nurse has to follow rules which are set by the NMC. The NMC is the Nursing and Midwifery Council they are the governing body for all nurses and midwifes, the NMC have produced a code and within the code there are rules, standards, guidance and advice. NMC The Code (2008). The NMC are a council who if find or have any incidents reported to them will make decisions about fitness to practice, and can discipline or strike a nurse off of the registration if the nurse has failed to follow the code or committed an offence. The main concern of the NMC is to safeguard patients and members of the public and how they are treated by nurses and midwifes. It is said in NMC, The Code (2008) Individuals must be respected and dignity must be maintained. Individuals should not be discriminated against and must also be treated with consideration and kindness. Where required a nurse must seek out help and support from relevant agencies and support networks in the health and social care setting. Respect is an essential part of protecting an individuals confidentiality, information should never be shared other than with relevant people or professionals involved with the care of the person. It is also important that information should be shared if the person is at risk or h arm. An additional part of respecting a person may be concerning their likes and dislikes, communicating is essential when caring for a person or there family to ensure the best possible care is given, this could be ensuring communication can happen without any obstruction for example language or communication requirements possibly providing some kind of aid. Consent is a large part of care giving every time a treatment is given this could be from bathing to giving medication consent must be obtained, if an individual declines consent for treatment this must be respected, as it is a persons right to be involved in any decisions regarding treatment however there is an instance when decision making could be taken away from a person this happens when the mental capacity is compromised. there is a part of legislation which ensures a person who is incapable of making decisions regarding care is safe guarded. As a professional nurse boundaries must be maintained between patients and nurse s it is unacceptable to accept gifts, loans or personal relationships from patients and their families. It is part of the role of a professional to identify risks and people who are taking risks, it is also a duty to report any practices that are putting others at risk. Record keeping is an essential skill which nurses must practice in an accurate way as the records include all of the patients care which has been given or is due to be given, keeping accurate records is imperative as poor records could harm a patients safety and confidentiality. In the case for David he may become ill in time and require nursing care and it may become costly to the government, it is his right to receive care as and when required and be treated with respect and dignity, he may decide he does not want his suffering to be prolonged if his life is nearing an end and any decisions he may take must be upheld. Be open and honest, act with integrity and uphold the reputation of your profession NMC The Code (2008). Following the above statement ensures you comply with the code and also by following the law, being honest and able to identify problems and deal with them in the correct way if anything were to happen in practice. This will ensure care given can be without prejudice and the integrity of the nurse remains intact. NMC (2008) Legal issues which could arise could be in two ways these are civil and criminal. A civil court of law is where an individual person can file a case against another person or organisation when a person has come to harm possibly by neglect. Criminal law is where a person has committed a crime and it is in the publics interest for the person who committed the crime to be prosecuted by a court of law and punished. Personal Concept As I have studied and read more about principles of health it has had a major impact on the importance of knowing what the dimensions of health are, and understanding why a person has maybe become ill or in hospital, and what can be done to help or educate an individual to have a better life style which will lead to improved health. Looking at an individual has also given me an understanding that determinants of health can be positive as well as negative, as having a good life style for someone who has a condition like MS can enhance quality of life. Also if someone has a very poor life style this can lead to conditions like type 2 diabetes, this is generally caused by a very poor diet and by being overweight. Being a nursing is an extremely important role and has very strict guidelines which must be followed. This will ensure accurate information and care is given at all times. By following the NMC code it will ensure that I am respectful of individuals and value people from all walks of life, always leading by example, being accountable for my actions and will always treat people fairly. Conclusion This assignment has looked at dimensions of health, and how different dimensions can have an effect on all of the dimensions, there are six different dimensions which range from emotional to physical, each one is of equal importance and if any one is impaired it can often influence health. An overview of a person who has MS has been given and what determinants affect this persons life, is it good or bad? Professional, legal and ethical principles have been looked at, also and the importances of how these come into play when a person is being nursed. Identifying how the assignment has enhanced a personal view of the nursing profession has also been discussed. It has been identified the importance of being accurate regarding care giving and in record keeping to ensure the best care is given at all times. Brooker C, Waugh A and Watson R. Foundations of Nursing practice fundamentals of holistic care, 2007 Edinburgh Mosby Elsevier. Burgess M, Shedding greater light on the natural history and prevalence of multiple sclerosis British Journal of Neuroscience nursing January 2010 Volume 6 number 1 Corcos J and Shinck E Neurogenic Bladder second edition 2008 Informa Healthcare. Naidoo J and Wills J. Foundations for Health Promotion Third edition 2009 Edinburgh. Nursing and Midwifery Council The Code 2008 World health organization. (WHO) 1948 Preamble to the constitution, Geneva. [online] http://www.who.int/suggestions/faq/en/ [13/11/2010]

Thomas Cole Essay -- essays research papers fc

THOMAS COLE Landscape painting was extremely important during the middle of the nineteenth century. One of the leading practitioners of landscape painters in America was Thomas Cole. He visited many places seeking the â€Å"natural† world to which he might utilize his direct observations to convey the untainted nature by man to his audience. His works resolved to find goodness in American land and to help Americans take pride in their unique geological features created by God. Thomas Cole inspired many with his brilliant works by offering satisfaction to those seeking the â€Å"truth† (realism) through the works of others. Thomas Cole was born on February 1, 1801 in Bolton, Lancashire, England. Due to financial problems his family endured, Cole, at the ripe old age of just fourteen, had to find work to assist with the family needs. He entered the work force as a textile printer and wood engraver in Philadelphia. In 1819, Cole returned to Ohio where his parents resided. Here, a portrait painter by the name of Stein, would become Cole’s primary teaching vehicle and inspiration for his oil techniques we’ve come to be familiar with. During this time, Cole was extremely impressed by what he saw in the landscapes of the New World and how different they were from the small town of England from whence he hailed. Self taught, art came naturally to Cole. One day Cole set out to observe nature and it’s wilderness. He began painting pictures by first making oil sketches of American rocks, trees, sunsets, plants, animals, as well as distant Indians. From these sketches he formed several paintings. Most famous for his allegorical collection called the â€Å"The Course of Empire† and is well-known for his Landscape paintings, â€Å"The Oxbow,† â€Å"The Woodchopper,† and â€Å"The Clove, Catskills.† In January of 1826, Cole had become to be known for founding the National Academy of Design. During this time, many would comission him to paint pictures of American scenery, but his primary desire and goal, he says, was to create a â€Å"higher style of landscape that would express moral or religious tones.† In 1836, Cole married Maria Barstow and settled in Catskill, New York. Catskill would obviously become the inspiration for his piece, â€Å"Catskill Mountains and the Hudson River†. From these paintings he influenced many other artists. Among these artists were Frederick Edwin Church and Albert Bierstadt. ... ...s Cole did an excellent job in portraying realism in his paintings. He helped America vision a society with possibilities, opportunities, and abundance of resources. Not only did Cole inspire the nation; he also influenced many artists who are now heading Cole’s way. Cole was a brilliant man of great intelligence who stole the hearts of many. In an article written by William Church Bryant, Bryant explains, â€Å"We might dream in his funeral oration on Cole, that the conscious valleys miss his accustomed visits and that autumnal glories of the woods are paler because of his departure.† Cole died on February 11, 1848 due to an illness and was remembered by many whom he helped to see the true vision of America. Bibliography Works Cited: Harvey, Eleanor Jones. The Painted Sketch: American Impressions From Nature 1830-1880. Dallas: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1998. Lucie-Smith, Edward. American Realism. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1994. Stokstad, Marilyn. Art History. Rev. ed. Vol. 2. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1995. 973-974. Yaeger, Bert D. The Hudson River School: American Landscape Artists. New York: Smithmark Publishers, 1996.

Ghandi Essay

Andreas Mazarakis –Chapel Hill Academy–English 10 Daphne Smith 5/15/13 â€Å"An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind.† This is one of Mahatma Gandhi’s most famous quotes and I think it embodies all he believed in and his mission that he spent his adult life trying to fulfill. Gandhi stood for the freedom that his people desperately needed. Mahatma Gandhi worked tirelessly to end discrimination in South Africa, and to separate India from the grasps of Great Britain. Gandhi was an idol to many people and led a great following down a path of love and respect. He treated people with kindness in the hopes that others would do what was right. I think that Mahatma Gandhi was a very wise person. â€Å"An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind† is a quote that empowers thoughts of non-violence and toleration. A world without men and women like Gandhi would be a world that had violence and wars to solve every problem. There are ways to put a solution to work that Gandhi used with all of his conflicts. â€Å"An eye for an eye makes the whole world blind.† I think that in today’s world this quote relates very closely to the ever present threat of nuclear warfare. The world has enough nuclear weapons to demolish the entire planet 6 times over. Gandhi’s quote suggests that if you take an eye for every eye you’ve lost, the entire world will be left, eyeless. If North Korea, was to nuke America, and America retaliated to iran and so on. The world would destroy itself. Gandhi was wise before his time and the world needs to rest in an era of peace. That starts with each Individual helping to make the world a better place.

De-Scalers Essay

When water is heated limescale deposits can form, especially in machines such as fully automatic coffee makers, espresso machines and all hot water units. In this context you often hear about hard and soft water. The hardness of the water indicates the proportion of limescale. Your water supply company will provide more information about hardness of your water. If your groundwater flows through calcareous rock layers, eroded magnesium and calcium carbonate will cause limescale deposits in your water. Why do I need to remove limescale? In addition to loss of coffee flavor limescale deposits can severely damage your machine and shorten its lifespan significantly. Limescale deposits in your machine lead to: Longer scalding time with higher electricity charges Lower water temperatures causing inferior coffee flavor Blocked machines pipe Corrosion of metal parts and sealing gaskets Expensive repairs Only regular and timely descaling with a high-quality descaler, such as ceragol ultra Premium Descaler, ensures a long lifespan and optimal coffee flavor. Your coffee maker is a high-tech machine which needs regular, gentle care. What do you expect from your descaler? Limescale deposits are removed by acids in the descaler. Only the right mixture of effective acids and gentle additives for the metal parts and sealing gaskets allows for optimal results during descaling. The quick reaction time and immediate reusability of the machine after rinsing are basic demands on a premium descaler. Why amidosulfonic acid? Descaling with citric or acetic acids The big problem when descaling with citric or acetic acids are the released flavor additives which cause an obtrusive smell during descaling. The plastic parts of your fully automated coffee maker tend to taken on these smells and influence the smell and taste of your coffee negatively. Plastic parts and sealing gaskets of your unit can be attacked by the vinegar or acetic acid. Citric acid tends to flake during descaling. This can block the valves and water pipes and lead to high repair charges. An additional problem is that the limescale is actually sealed in by an indissoluble layer which occurs repeatedly when using descalers based on citric acids. Descaling with vinegar, acetic acid or citric acid takes significantly longer than descaling with ceragol ultra Premium Descaler. Descaling with amidosulfonic acid Descaling with amidosulfonic acid, the active ingredient of our ceragol ultra Premium Descaler, does not require any reaction time. During the descaling program the limescale is dissolved and flushed away. This process is completely odorless and neutral in taste. After thorough rinsing your machine is once again food-safe. The additives in ceragol ultra Premium Descaler guard and protect the metal and plastic components of your fully automatic coffee maker. The right time to descale Automatic coffee machine w. auto descaling indicator Please ask your water supply company about the hardness of your water and set the water hardness according to the operating instructions of your manufacturer. Your machine will indicate when descaling is needed. Automatic coffee machine w/o descaling indicator Descaling becomes necessary as soon as you notice a delay in operation or irregularities during coffee preparation. Another telltale sign is the reduction of the amount of foam produced on the coffee. The machine must be descaled periodically and in due time.

Character analysis Essay Example

Character analysis Essay Example Character analysis Essay Character analysis Essay 1. William Munny goals at the beginning of the film where very defined. The story first starts off with a prologue scrolling across the screen and a silhouette figure of William Munny burying his wife. The text tells us of a less then perfect man and husband; William Munny. A drunk, an outlaw, and a vengeful killer, who has now reformed his ways to take care of his children and to up hold the vows to his wife; to stay sober. As the protagonist in the film, Will Munny was living his somber life fulfilling the dream left to his wife on his less then productive pig farm. As the film progressed, Will is torn between the vows of his deceased wife and his inner demons. William finds that in order fulfill his goals to take care of his family, he would have to break his vows to his wife. Leading him to accept the opportunity set forth by The Schofield Kid. The main drive in Will Munny decision was pure money, that is also set forth in his character name. The pure financial gain (simple fix) rather then morals moves him to this decision. 2. The common character traits share between Will Munny, Ned Logan, The Schofield Kid, and Little Bill Daggett is that at one point in their lives they were or trying to be outlaws, to make a name for themselves and make a buck or two. Will Munny traits were defined as his devotion to his wife and the love for his family. Just as his name states it; he had a will for money, which in turn was the root of all his evil. Ned Logan and his Spencer rifle; most noted for use in military wars. Ned kept his Spencer right above the door way in his home and seemed to cherish it and when he offers his Spencer rifle to Munny as he wont be using it anymore, is the real turning point for Ned, that this is not the life he intended to lead. The Schofield Kid traits where that he could not see very far, he had limited skills but had an eagerness and a will to learn. His role in the movie was that of a past Will Munny. Finally, Little Bill whose name again is a reference to the term of money. Little Bi lls job as the town sheriff is the depiction of fairness in the town whos more interested in protecting the financial interests of Skinny the pimp than in effecting justice for the prostitutes. He is a man that portrays violence, intelligence, and is the depiction of fairness in Little Whiskey but yet the most truthful character in the film by exposing the Duke of Death as a false statement. 3. The movie Unforgiven is very Classical Hollywood Cinema in an essence that the story centers on the personal inner causes: the commitment that Will Munny made to his beloved wife, choice of leaving his children and abolishing the vows of his wife collectively procuring the bounty and the traits of a vengeful and almost indiscriminate murderer. The title itself hold a symbolic meaning in the movie one could question the forgiveness of Will Munny; was he seeking forgiveness or already obtained forgiveness.

Top 10 Words Confused in English [N-P]

Top 10 Words Confused in English [N-P] Top 10 Words Confused in English [N-P] Top 10 Words Confused in English [N-P] By Maeve Maddox My cumulative list of words commonly confused continues with ten that begin with the letters N and P. The confusion relates to spelling or meaning. 1. nutritional / nutritious The adjective  nutritional means, â€Å"related to the process of nutrition,† that is, using food to support life. Ex. The nutritional value of one egg is the equivalent of one ounce of meat. The adjective  nutritious means â€Å"nourishing or healthy to eat.† Ex. A nutritious breakfast can help prevent overeating and snacking later in the day.   2. noisome / noisy The adjective noisome means, â€Å"offensive to the smell or other senses.† Ex. I was repelled by the noisome smell that accompanied the speaker back from the smoking area.   The adjective noisy means, â€Å"characterized by the presence of noise.† Ex. Many writers find it difficult to work in a noisy environment. 3. observance / observation The performance of a customary rite is an observance. Ex. The observance of Memorial Day includes military parades and the placing of flowers on graves. Ex. Do you support moving the observance of Memorial Day to May 30th?   An observation is an act of recognizing and noting some fact or occurrence, often involving the measurement of some magnitude with suitable instruments. Ex. Gallileo’s achievements included the observation and analysis of sunspots. 4. obsolescent / obsolete Something that is obsolescent is going out of use. Ex. Although still used in 66 percent of US homes, landline telephones are obsolescent. Something that is obsolete is no longer active or in use. Ex. Mimeograph machines are obsolete. 5. ordinance / ordnance An ordinance is an official decree. Ex. An ordinance in my town forbids residents to allow pet cats to go outside without a leash. The term ordnance refers to military supplies including weapons, ammunition, combat vehicles, and the necessary maintenance tools and equipment. Ex. In 1969, he served as a platoon sergeant in the 70th  Ordnance  Battalion,  responsible for  maintaining the 5th Infantry Divisions basic load of ammunition. 6. palate / palette / pallet All three words are pronounced the same. The roof of the mouth consisting of the structures that separate the mouth from the nasal cavity is called the palate. Figuratively palate refers to the physical sense of taste or to intellectual capacity. Ex. Ludovico wrote that, given Francescos  exquisite palate, he chose only fish of the finest quality. Ex. It may take a well-developed literary palate to fully appreciate, but this miniseries remains an indelible treat. Painters arrange paint on a palette. Ex. Over the course of more than two decades, Ive used all kinds of palettes dishes with little wells, pieces of porcelain tile, old CDs, waxed paper, and water-color paper.    Figuratively, â€Å"an artist’s palette† is a distinctive combination of colors. Ex. Vermeer’s seventeenth-century palette did not include many strong colors. The word pallet may refer to a temporary bed. Ex. At night I  slept on a pallet  in a  corner  of Belles upstairs room. The word pallet also applies to â€Å"a portable platform of wood, metal, or other material designed for handling by a forklift truck.† 7. pedal / peddle The verb pedal means, â€Å"to use or work a pedal, as of an organ, piano, or bicycle.† Literally, the verb peddle means, â€Å"to travel about with wares for sale.† Figuratively, it means, â€Å"to deal out or seek to disseminate, as ideas or opinions. Ex. Writers come to tell you stories, [and] to  peddle their  ideas. 8. pour / pore pour: to cause or allow to flow; emit in a steady stream. pore: to gaze intently or fixedly; look searchingly; to devote oneself to attentive reading (used chiefly with over). 9. prescribe / proscribe To lay down a rule or give directions is to prescribe. Ex. The doctor prescribed an earlier bedtime. To condemn or forbid as harmful is to proscribe. Ex. The university has proscribed the carrying of guns on campus. 10. peek / peak / pique Most people use these words correctly in speech, but misspell them in writing. All three may be used as nouns or verbs. peek verb: look slyly or furtively or to peer through a crack or hole or from a place of concealment. noun: a surreptitious look peak verb: to reach a maximum, as of capacity, value, or activity. noun: the pointed or projecting part of something. noun: the top of a hill or mountain or something resembling it. pique verb: to arouse anger or resentment in someone. noun: offense taken. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Fly, Flew, (has) FlownFlied?People versus Persons6 Foreign Expressions You Should Know

The Impost and the Abacus in Architecture

The Impost and the Abacus in Architecture An impost is that part of an arch from which the arc swings upward. If a capital is the top part of a column, an impost is the bottom part of an arch. An impost is NOT a capital but is often on top of a capital that has no entablature. An impost needs an arch. An abacus is a projecting block atop a columns capital that does not hold up an arch. The next time youre in Washington, D.C., look up at the columns of the Lincoln Memorial to see an abacus or two. The Impost Block Builders of what is now known as Byzantine architecture created decorative stone blocks to transition between columns and arches. Columns were smaller than the thick arches, so impost blocks were tapered, the small end fitting on the column capital and the larger end fitting onto the arch. Other names for impost blocks include dosseret, pulvino, supercapital, chaptrel, and sometimes abacus. The Look of Imposts The architectural term impost may date back to Medieval times. The interior of the Byzantine-era Basilica of SantApollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, Italy is often cited to illustrate the use of imposts. Built in the early 6th century (c. 500 AD) by the Ostrogoth King Theodoric the Great, this UNESCO Heritage site is a fine example of both mosaics and arches in Early Christian architecture. Note the impost blocks above the capitals of the columns. The arches spring upward from those blocks, which are traditionally highly decorated. Todays American homes reminiscent of Mediterranean or Spanish architecture will exhibit architectural features of the past. As was typical of imposts hundreds of years ago, the imposts often are painted a decorative color that contrasts with the color of the house itself. Taken together, these images show the transition of the column (3) to the arch (1) by way of the impost (2). Origin of the Word Impost has several meanings, many of which may be more familiar than the architectural definition. In horse racing, impost is the weight assigned to a horse in a handicap race. In the world of taxation, an impost is a duty imposed on imported goods   -    the word is even in the U.S. Constitution as a power given to Congress (see Article I, Section 8). In all of these senses, the word comes from a Latin word  impositus meaning to impose a burden onto something. In architecture, the burden is on a part of the arch that holds it up, denying gravitys attempt to bring the weight of the arch to earth. Additional Definitions of Impost The springing point or block of an arch. - G. E. Kidder Smith A masonry unit or course, often distinctively profiled, which receives and distributes the thrust of each end of an arch. - Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, The Impost and Arch in Architectural History Nobody knows where arches began. They arent really needed, because the Primitive Hut post and lintel construction works just fine. But theres something beautiful about an arch. Perhaps its mans imitation of creating a horizon, creating a sun and a moon. Professor Talbot Hamlin, FAIA, writes that brick arches date back to 4th millennium BC (4000 to 3000 BC) in the region known today as the Middle East. The ancient land called Mesopotamia was partially enveloped by the Eastern Roman Empire during the long period we sometimes call the Byzantine civilization of the Middle Ages. It was a time when traditional building techniques and designs already developed in the Middle East combined with the Classical (Greek and Roman) ideas of the West. Byzantine architects experimented with creating higher and higher domes using pendentives, and they also invented impost blocks to build arches grand enough for the great cathedrals of Early Christian architecture. Ravenna, south of Venice on the Adriatic Sea, was the center of Byzantine architecture in 6th century Italy.   Later still, it came gradually to replace the capital, and instead of being square at the bottom was made circular, so that the new capital had a continuously changing surface, from the circular bottom on top of the shaft up to a square of much larger size above, which supported the arches directly. This shape could then be carved with surface ornament of leaves or interlacing of any desired intricacy; and, to give this carving greater brilliance, often the stone beneath the surface was deeply cut away, so that sometimes the entire outside face of the capital was quite separate from the solid block behind, and the result had a sparkle and a vividness which was extraordinary. - Talbot Hamlin In our own homes today we continue the tradition begun thousands of years ago. We often decorate the impost area of an arch if and when it protrudes or is pronounced. The impost and impost block, like many architectural details found on todays homes, are less functional and more ornamental, reminding homeowners of past architectural beauty. Sources G. E. Kidder Smith, Source Book of American Architecture, Princeton Architectural Press, 1996, p. 645Dictionary of Architecture and Construction, Cyril M. Harris, ed., McGraw-Hill, 1975, p. 261Talbot Hamlin, Architecture through the Ages, Putnam, Revised 1953, pp. 13-14, 230-231Photo of Lincoln Memorial by Hisham Ibrahim/Getty Images (cropped); Photo of Spanish-style home by David Kozlowski/Moment Mobile Collection/Getty Images (cropped); Photo of colonnade and arches inside the Basilica of SantApollinare Nuovo by CM Dixon Print Collector/Getty Images (cropped); Illustration of an impost by Pearson Scott Foresman [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons

Life and Career Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Life and Career Planning - Essay Example It is a quite tough job which cannot be performed by everyone. The funeral home director requires massive satisfaction in their own aptitude and capabilities so as to offer well-organized and apt services in order to relieve the mournful family members, associates and friends (Bureau of Labor Statistics, â€Å"Funeral Directors†). In the research paper, varied functions and responsibilities of a funeral director or an embalmer will be discussed. Moreover, it also includes the assorted decisions and practices which are to be performed, being a funeral home director. Apart from this, it also highlights the stoutness which is mandatory for an individual hoping to become a funeral home director/embalmer. Funeral custom is one of the painful acts in an individual’s life. It is a ritual marking a person’s demise. Funeral custom varies widely. The job of funeral practice involves a lot of responsibilities and capabilities. The job of a funeral director involves enormous satisfaction in their ability to provide well-organized, appropriate services and to console grieving family members and friends. A funeral director is also known as the mortician or undertaker. The funeral home director is an expert concerned in the business of funeral rites. After being a mortician, funeral home directors perform these services for the family of the departed. These tasks include the cremation of the dead as well as the preparation and display of the actual funeral ritual. The funeral directors can handle the practices of the funeral only after specialized training and instructions. One of the important responsibilities of a funeral director is to reassure and counsel the family members u ndergoing this pain. Moreover, the embalmers also handle the operation of cleaning and protecting the remains and often restructure the damaged remains for the purpose of screening. Thus, it can be

Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 219

Assignment Example Consider Africa, for example. The continent is the second most populous on earth, and has the largest arable land on earth. The paradox? Africa has the worst cases of famine and starvation globally, and the lowest levels of food security on earth. From a critical perspective, it is worth noting that the above-mentioned scenario should not exist. However, it is also important to consider that a lack of initiative is the biggest obstacle to sustainable food production. In developed countries agriculture always ranks top among the priority areas of development. This is not the case in places with food insecurity, and even if it were the case there is no commitment beyond simple formulation of policies (Christou 32). Budgetary allocations are either below required levels, or misappropriation of funds and poor prioritization abound. While all these constraints remain in place, population growth is not being controlled. Developed countries had to implement population control measures at some point in order to balance food production and population growth, thereby providing a window for food production to be boosted while population growth was managed/stabilized. People like to go on about climate change and soil erosion, but it is important to know that there is nothing that cannot be managed for the sake of mankind’s advancement (Gilland 19). With will, resources, and commitment it will be possible for food production to be boosted beyond the effects of population growth, and all other challenges surmounted. In conclusion, I must say that countries with food insecurity just haven’t done enough to mitigate the situation. The possibilities are endless, but the commitment is

IMG Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

IMG - Article Example Signing deals with various celebrity athletes like Tiger woods among others and significant expansion in terms of the firm’s structure and function explains its economy of scale. It is worth to note that IMG is currently facing challenges of its already large scale of operation in regard to its emerging competitors. The company is evidently out of control as it grapples with management challenges. This can be seen from mass exit of employees, signed athletes and the rising criticism on the issue of conflict of interest. The facts presented in this case study shows that IMG grew exponentially due to its initial competitive advantage but later ran out of managerial techniques as far as sustainable and maintenance of value creation activities are concerned (Hitt,et al. 67-9). The emergence of market dynamics with increasing competing firms that have embraced technology and strategic pricing policy is putting the IMG under significant threat of failure hence the relevance of the company â€Å"out of control†. In the contemporary turbulent market, it is advisable that McCormack or his successors need to boost the size and diversity of IMG’s portfolio of businesses. This is in line with the changing market conditions in which diversification would help it cushion losses from one aspect of their portfolio. For it to manage competitive strength in the market, it only needs to reorganize its management techniques that should be coupled with a shift towards global standard in order to survive among the several new entrants in the industry. One approach of strategic management that would revive IMG is to blend outsourcing of skilled personnel with its own employees. This would provide hybrid technique that would serve to help it deliver quality services to its diverse clients. This implies that IMG would do a better job for its clients if it contracted with

Larson, The Transformation of Mrs peters; An Analysis of A Her peers ( Assignment

Larson, The Transformation of Mrs peters; An Analysis of A Her peers ( Literary Analysis ) - Assignment Example ly from both primary and secondary sources and inclusion of direct quotations and assertions from the characters which makes the story fascinating and offers the audience an inordinate opportunity to see the internal thoughts of various characters (Showalter 121). To substantiate claims and offer a profound understanding of why Mrs. Peters changed, the author summarizes ideas from secondary sources, names the author in a signal phrase as well as include page numbers in interpolation. Through Elaine Hedges’ analysis, it becomes ostensible that the sink, the stove, dirty towel on a roller, and the bucket of water were all symbolic (Diana 32). They indicate how women’s role was confined to the house and Mrs. Peters has her involvement with this. Mrs. Peters herself discovers the motive for the murder; she spots an empty birdcage, poorly sewn stitches, dismantled hinges and door, a strong indication that the murderers were violent. During Glaspell’s time, women were awfully confined and a patriarchal society, and were not allowed to leave the house. They resulted to keeping birds that would help them counteract monotony. The empty birdcage draws diverging interpretation from both Mrs. Peters and Mrs. Hale for they knew very well what it meant (Diana 33). The author’s insinuation of the state and role of women in the then society helps us understand the reason for Mrs. Peters’ change and have a profound understanding of the entire s tory. The world of women was criticized and trivialized by men. They could hardly see the wisdom and intelligence that the women possessed. Through this, the author offers a profound explication of how men belittled women and questions the ideals that the society was based on. In a topic sentence towards the end, the author articulates that by the end of the story Mrs. Peters had been transformed from a law abiding citizen to one who mutely censured and snubbed the law. To typify the point, he goes ahead to provide evidence of

The Legal Structure of the Business Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Legal Structure of the Business - Term Paper Example Don can set aside the contract under the following defenses against the formation of contracts: Duress and undue influence. In jurisprudence, duress is referred to as a condition where an individual performs an act due to violence, a threat or any other pressure against the person in question. Duress is the pressure that is exerted on a person to induce him to perform an act that he could not otherwise perform under the ordinary situation. Similarly, coercion used lures a one to act or not in a manner that he would not or act. Duress constitutes going against a person’s will, the possibility of legal defense and justification of the commission of an unlawful act          Undue influence in jurisprudence is an equitable doctrine where one party takes advantage of its positional power over the other, making free will bargaining impossible. Don can seek presumed undue influence since their relationship with Evan may fall in the class of relationships, which as a matter of law may facilitate the presumption of undue influence.   Failure of this is not the end.   The actual undue influence allows an innocent party to set aside the contract, in the absence of presumed undue influence provided there is evidence that the power was imbalanced when signing the contract.          Don can seek rescission as a remedy. Rescission is an unbiased remedy that unwinds the contract between the parties. Rescission ensures that the parties to a contract restore their positions as was before they entered the contract. A person seeking rescission must, therefore, agree to return all the benefits that he or she has received from the contract. The furniture, in this case, is not treated as part of the sales. This is pursuant to the exclusion clause. An exclusion clause is an expression in a contract that seeks to restrict the rights of the parties involved in the contract. The exclusion clause can only operate if the terms are incorporated in the contract by signature, as in this case, either by notice or by previous course of dealings.

Corporate Social Responsibility Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Corporate Social Responsibility - Assignment Example Thus, CSR is simply amalgamating environmental and social concerns into business policy and procedures. Potential benefits of CSR relative to the costs for businesses and stakeholders Apparently, CSR is an ongoing responsibility held by businesses to ethically behave and economically develop while improving the quality of life of their employees and their families, over and above, that of the local community and society at large. Scholars argue that companies must be prepared to merge both the business and society through the principle of shared value. Shared value incorporates economic value that creates value for society through addressing needs and challenges.2 For instance, the Coca-Cola Company participated in a Corporate Social responsibility by sponsoring World Cup, 2010 in South Africa. In essence, the potential benefits associated to CSR include human response, risk management, brand differentiation, operating licence, and diverting attention. In human resources aspect, CSR acts as an aid to retention and recruitment especially in relation to a competitive market. Moreover, managing of risks is crucial as one of the important corporate strategies that are achievable through building a culture of doing the right thing within a corporation. Besides, the competitive market requires companies to have a unique factor that differentiates them from other brands that are in the market, thus separating them from the competition in the minds of customers. Consequently, companies tend to take substantial voluntary steps of convincing the government about their participation in social responsibility such as health and safety and environment. Never the less, companies may involve themselves in high profile CSR programs so as to divert the minds of the customers from their perceived negative impacts. Of importance to note is that CSR has cost of aiming to satisfy the customers both in product quality and ethically sourced a process that requires additional costs. In essence, companies use extra cost in creating brand loyalty, which assist in increasing revenue that is meant to attract customers. Additionally, companies have a cost of corporate social responsibility which is the capital investment. Capital investment is taken to handle a different kind of investment that a specific company prefers to take into account and find out if the investment is worthwhile.3 The importance of CSR relative to other corporate objectives Corporate objectives are goals that are normally laid down by the board of directors putting more influence on the critical factors that are necessary for company to excel in the market. Once companies are formed, the people in charge understand that social responsibilities in respect to the society must be accomplished even though it is not in the expected set out. This is because companies have different issues that they work on. For instance, a particular company may have an excellent customer but have the worst record of employment, so as to reduce the cost of the company. One crucial responsibility that companies should pay attention to is legislation. Essentially, some areas of corporate social responsibility are covered by legislation and regulation, which should be compiled by every company according to the law. Besides, public companies are expected to give reports on their environmental impacts in their own reports that are later combined to form an annual report and accounts. Consequently, companies have various laws they must follow depending on the type of firms

The Legal Structure of the Business Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The Legal Structure of the Business - Term Paper Example Don can set aside the contract under the following defenses against the formation of contracts: Duress and undue influence. In jurisprudence, duress is referred to as a condition where an individual performs an act due to violence, a threat or any other pressure against the person in question. Duress is the pressure that is exerted on a person to induce him to perform an act that he could not otherwise perform under the ordinary situation. Similarly, coercion used lures a one to act or not in a manner that he would not or act. Duress constitutes going against a person’s will, the possibility of legal defense and justification of the commission of an unlawful act          Undue influence in jurisprudence is an equitable doctrine where one party takes advantage of its positional power over the other, making free will bargaining impossible. Don can seek presumed undue influence since their relationship with Evan may fall in the class of relationships, which as a matter of law may facilitate the presumption of undue influence.   Failure of this is not the end.   The actual undue influence allows an innocent party to set aside the contract, in the absence of presumed undue influence provided there is evidence that the power was imbalanced when signing the contract.          Don can seek rescission as a remedy. Rescission is an unbiased remedy that unwinds the contract between the parties. Rescission ensures that the parties to a contract restore their positions as was before they entered the contract. A person seeking rescission must, therefore, agree to return all the benefits that he or she has received from the contract. The furniture, in this case, is not treated as part of the sales. This is pursuant to the exclusion clause. An exclusion clause is an expression in a contract that seeks to restrict the rights of the parties involved in the contract. The exclusion clause can only operate if the terms are incorporated in the contract by signature, as in this case, either by notice or by previous course of dealings.

Women and Mothers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Women and Mothers - Essay Example his depicts mothers’ role as key advisors in their respective families, mostly comprised of instructing children on varied aspects that pertain to both moral and spiritual conduct. Therefore, it was the mandate of Carolingian women to instill both spiritual and societal morals among their children via emphasizing on the essence of God’s reverence in their lives. In Carolingian family, mother’s key role encompassed instructing children according to scriptural precepts. This was to ensure they embraced pious life while still young besides attaining other essential societal morals meant to help them succeed in their entire lives. Hence, ensure societal harmony and decency (Dhuoda 10). The entire book comprises almost of one persona, which is the mother who goes to the extent of elaborating what she says to her son. This is to ensure while William is young, understands well everything regarding earthly life besides benefits attached to being humble, respecting, obedient and Godly (Dhuoda 22). For instance, Dhuoda instructs William saying, If you love God with all your heart and study carefully the volumes of His scriptures in the Old and New Testaments, and if you do this reading with appropriate concentration, then the spirit of wisdom will come to rest upon you1. In addition, besides mothers instructing young ones to embrace piety, they emphasized the essence of children respecting their fathers (Dhuoda 22). This is via using examples from the Holy Scriptures that feature varied old patriarchs or saints who choose the same path and became successful, for instance, Isaac (Dhuoda 24). However, emphasis for mothers’ respect is not as per fathers’ in the entire book but calls for parents’ general obedience by their children. Hence, confirming the mothers’ role of instilling morals among their young children. This is also noticeable in the entire book, whereby there is no father’s intervention either in suggesting or indulging themselves with close

History of Rape in armed conflict

History of Rape in armed conflict Rape and violent sexual abuse of women in armed conflict has a long history which corroborates that sexual violence is not only common; in effect it is encouraged. In war, every man could be king  [1]  . Rape has existed as an invidious expression of the domination and subjugation of women throughout the course of human existence and is compelling evidence of the subordination of women by men  [2]  .Women are raped by men of all ethnic origins, creed and ideologies. During Biblical times soldiers regarded women as spoils of war; Biblical law conveyed that soldiers could take these as plunder. [a]nd you may use the plunder the Lord your God gives you from your enemies  [3]  . Hebrews raped  [4]  and were permitted to keep the captives as slaves or concubines. Greeks raped; Homers Iliad offers an insight into the fate of women in war, the book opens with an argument between the Greek warriors Agamemnon and Achilles over the possession of women seized during the Trojan W ar. Chryseism a Trojan woman of lesser status was captured by the Spartans and given to Agamemnon as his battle camp entertainment  [5]  . In the History of Art H W Janson has offered an explanation of the sculpture by the 16th century Italian artist Giovanni Bologna entitled Rape of The Sabine women, which is a reminder of the fate of the Sabine women at the hands of Roman warriors  [6]  . In the middle age during the first crusade knights throughout their march to Constantinople set aside time to assault women  [7]  . In the fifteenth century French soldiers raped English women during the hundred year war  [8]  and Catholic French raped French women during the war of religion  [9]  . In 1746 King Georges army suppressed a Scottish rebellion by raping any Scottish woman ill-fated enough to be home  [10]  . George Washingtons documents recorded an occurrence of rape in the revolutionary war  [11]  .General Andrew Jackson was credited with coining the phrase Booty and Beauty during the 1812 war  [12]  ,substantiating the opinion that women during war become mere object and are no more legal su bjects. In 1914 during World War I, rape was extensively used against French and Belgian women by German soldiers, who began to abandon this practice  [13]  , when the troops switched to trench warfare making access to local women difficult  [14]  . Rape was used as a war tactic by German and Japanese armies in World War II and later by the Russian forces as a weapon of retribution .Kristallnacht or the night of broken glass was a night of rapes, arson, plunder and murder in November 1938 as Germans killed Jews, burned their properties and arrested the survivors, so that they could be moved to concentration camps  [15]  . However, it must be noted that Hitlers government expelled rapists from the Nazi party and turned them over to the civil courts as Nazis regarded rapes more reprehensible than murder since rape violated Nuremburg racial laws forbidding sexual intercourse between Gentiles and Jews. When the war changed course and the Russian army advanced into German territory, G erman women were treated exactly as the Russian women had been treated by the Germans. Hordes of Russian troops demanded the rights due the conquerors: the women of the conquered  [16]  . Moroccan armed force in 1948 fought free French forces in Italy under contract terms that included free license to rape and plunder in the enemy territory  [17]  . In 1937 during World War II the Chinese Nationalist army used Nanking as its capital but General Chiang Kai-shek decided not to defend Nanking and withdrew the army when Japanese forces arrived leaving the city full of defenceless women and children resulting in a number of them being abnormally and sadistically killed and raped  [18]  . Many old women and young girls were raped and their bodies were mutilated after the act. In the Tokyo tribunal it was noted that the Japanese government had knowledge of the rapes but did nothing to prevent them from happening  [19]  . The atrocities did not stop with Nanking, the Japane se soldiers forced almost 80,000 to 200,000 Asian women, mostly Korean who were known as comfort women, to serve as sex slaves. These comfort women were held mostly at frontline brothels and evidence shows that officials of the Japanese Imperial army  [20]  maintained meticulous records about the price per woman (one yen to use a Chinese woman, one and a half yen to use a Korean woman and two yen to use a Japanese woman) , revenue generated and venereal disease  [21]  . While giving evidence at the Tokyo tribunal, one soldier admitted that he partook in daybreak raids on Korean villages dragging women and loading them into trucks to be taken to frontline brothels  [22]  . Historians hold the view that most women held in Japanese brothels died during or soon after the World war II  [23]  . The experience of Vietnamese women in the 1960s was no different than the experience of women involved in armed conflict in the past.The sight of a womans body spread eagled with an 11th brigade badge between her legs, witnessed by an American G.I flying over a rice paddy near the village of My Lai in Vietnam, a few days after an American unit had massacred nearly the entire population, bears some evidence to this continuing abuse.  [24]  . Time and war tactics advanced but the plight of women during armed conflict saw no change. More than 20,000 Bengali women were raped and impregnated by Pakistani soldiers in the 1971 war between Pakistan and what is today Bangladesh  [25]  . Almost 5000 women were raped by Iraqi soldiers during the August 1990 invasion of Kuwait and after liberation a number of foreign domestic workers were raped by returning Kuwaitis  [26]  . Women in Rwanda  [27]  and Kashmir  [28]  suffered rape and death during internal armed conflict. During Perus 12 year internal war women were raped, murdered and threatened both by the government security forces and the communist party of Peru shining path  [29]  . Similarly women in East Timor were raped and killed since the Indonesian occupation of 1975  [30]  . During the ethnic violence of Liberias civil war, Liberian women faced rape and death  [31]  . Media reports are available of sexual violence committed against women by UN TAC in Cambodia; UN forces in Somalia and rebel forces in Dr. Congo  [32]  . Most recently, there have been reports of mass rapes which have occurred in the war torn lands of the former Yugoslavia. M. Cherif Bassiouni (head of an U N commission investigating war crimes) cited almost 13,000 to 50,000 rape victims in the Bosnian war, majority being Muslim women victimized by the Serbs  [33]  , who used rape as a weapon in order to express the totality of victory, a means for troop mollification and as a form of genocide and ethnic cleansing. The details listed above are but a few to give an insight into the historical past ; however, for ages rape has been used and continues to be used globally as a weapon during internal or external armed conflict.

Decision Making Strategies Essay -- essays research papers

Strategic thinking is an essential leadership skill. Our learning team has learned to consider our current decision-making strategies, and examine our options for choosing the best strategy for any situation be it one-sided, compromise, collaboration and deciding-by-majority rule. As a learning team we will identify any problem someone on the team may have such as being shy, not very talkative and hesitate about having to stand in front of the class while presenting our presentation. Being part of a well functioning learning team identifying the problem(s) and wanting to do something about it is the first step. Analyze all parts of the situation to figure out what is stopping a team member(s) from getting what the team need to solve the problem. As a team make up a list of the varies sol...

Properties of Hydrogen :: essays research papers

HYDROGEN Hydrogen is a gaseous element, symbol H, usually classed in group 1 (or Ia) of the periodic table Hydrogen melts at –259.2Â ° C (–434.56Â ° F) and boils at –252.77Â ° C (–422.986Â ° F). Hydrogen was confused with other gases until the British chemist Henry Cavendish demonstrated in 1766 that it was evolved by the action of sulfuric acid on metals and also showed at a later date that it was an independent substance that combined with oxygen to form water. The British chemist Joseph Priestley named the gas inflammable air in 1781, and the French chemist Antoine Laurent Lavoisier renamed it hydrogen Properties and Occurrence At ordinary temperatures hydrogen is a colorless, tasteless, and odorless gas, with a density of 0.089 g/liter at 0Â ° C (32Â ° F). It is highly flammable. Like most gaseous elements it is diatomic (its molecules contain two atoms), but it dissociates into free atoms at high temperatures. Hydrogen has a lower boiling point and melting point than any other substance except helium. Liquid hydrogen, first obtained by the British chemist Sir James Dewar in 1898, is colorless (but light blue in thick layers) with sp.gr. 0.070. when allowed to evaporate rapidly under reduced pressure it freezes into a colorless solid. Hydrogen is a mixture of two allotropic forms, orthohydrogen and parahydrogen, ordinary hydrogen containing about three-fourths of the ortho form and one-fourth of the para form. The melting point and boiling point of the two forms differ slightly from those of ordinary hydrogen. Practically pure parahydrogen is obtained by adsorbing ordinary hydrogen on charcoal at about –225Â ° C (about –373Â ° F). Hydrogen is known to exist in three isotopic forms. The nucleus of each atom of ordinary hydrogen is composed of one proton. Deuterium, present in ordinary hydrogen to the extent of 0.02 percent, contains one proton and one neutron in the nucleus of each atom and has an atomic mass of two. Tritium , an unstable, radioactive isotope, contains one proton and two neutrons in the nucleus of each atom, and has an atomic mass of three. Both deuterium and tritium are essential components of nuclear fusion weapons, or hydrogen bombs. Free hydrogen is found only in very small traces in the atmosphere, but solar and stellar spectra show that it is abundant in the sun and other stars, and is, in fact, the most common element in the universe. In combination with other elements it is widely distributed on the earth, where the most important and abundant compound of hydrogen is water, H2O.

How does Pinter exploit the verbal and the visual in the Birthday Party

The Birthday Party is a play in which the visual and the verbal are carefully put together to create certain effects in the spectators. Pinter exploits both the verbal and the visual to show the personalities of the characters as well as their relationships, often with much ambiguity as the visual and verbal do not always match. Indeed, the contrast between the visual and the verbal can at times be very disconcerting for the spectators, creating an atmosphere of uncertainty and secrecy. Pinter also explores power, both verbal and visual, and how it is used to create fear and violence as well as the idea of secrecy. Obviously, the verbal and visual are very important for the characterisation, it is through what characters say and do that we are able to know more about them and the other characters. Petey is the first character that we see on stage, he is also probably the character that we doubt the least; for example, when he says that it is his chess night we are inclined to believe him. He is perhaps the only character, aside from Stanley, who is not taken in by Goldberg and McCann, which we see through his questioning their actions; â€Å"Where are you taking him?† He also is not seduced by Goldberg's speeches the way Meg and Lulu are, all he says after Goldberg talks about his childhood is â€Å"Well, we all remember our childhood†. Petey's blunt manner here shows that he is not really interested by the two newcomers, perhaps why he does not stay for the party. Petey is also quite blunt with his wife, Meg; he answers her questions but does not really elaborate what he is saying or take any interest in her, often just answering â€Å"yes† or â€Å"no†. The spectators get the impression that he would much rather be left alone, in fact the only things he seems to show any real interest in are the paper and his chess night, thus making it seem that he prefers the â€Å"outside† world to the community in the boarding house. Meg is almost the exact opposite to Petey. Unlike him, the boarding house community seems to be her world; the only time she leaves is to go shopping. She is also very proud of it, saying â€Å"this is a very good boarding house. It is. It's on the list† to Petey. Meg seems to be quite simple, asking stupid questions and making obvious statements such as â€Å"But sometimes you go out in the morning and its dark†. She also seems to believe everything people tell her, for example, she believes that Stanley is a concert pianist despite this being very unlikely. She is a trusting character who latches on to others, perhaps because her own husband does not seem to care for her. She admires Goldberg and listens to what he says; it is he who suggests that she throw a party for Stanley's birthday and she asks him what she should drink and whether she looks nice; she seems to want his approval.Sentence and Verbal Communication She also cares for Stanley, saying â€Å"he's [her] Stanley now†, and despite the fact that he sometimes bullies her; she still cares about what he thinks, for example, on page 21 after he menaces her she says in a small voice â€Å"Didn't you enjoy your breakfast Stan?† The audience gets the impression from what she says, and perhaps the nervous facial expressions we could imagine her to have at this moment, that she worries a lot about pleasing Stanley, an idea emphasised by her panic when she realises she has nothing to give him for breakfast on page 70. Overall, verbally and visually, Meg seems to be a simple and trusting character that cares a great deal about her guests and what they think. However, her last words, â€Å"Oh, it's true I was. (Pause) I know I was.† perhaps show that she is not so trusting as she seems as the pause and repetition could mean that she is trying to convince herself that what she says is true while she knows that it is not. Meg's uncertainty also appears at other points in the play where the stage directions say that she is uncertain or uneasy, such as on page 54. Perhaps this uncertainty is simple because she is not comfortable in social situations or maybe she thinks the others are making fun of her, for example, when Goldberg asks her to make a speech. The audience can get the impression that she chooses to believe the others because it is easier than confronting them, which could cause her whole world to fall apart. A lot of Meg and Petey's characterisation is done through their relationship with each other. Indeed, Pinter exploits their dialogues to add humour to the play. The fast rhythm created by the short sentences shot back and forth can remind the audience of a tennis game while Meg's constant questioning can make the audience laugh, for example on page 11: â€Å"Petey: Someone's just had a baby Meg: Oh, they haven't! Who? Petey: Some girl. Meg: Who, Petey, who? Petey: I don't think you'd know her. Meg: What's her name? Petey: Lady Mary Splatt. Meg: I don't know her.† Their dialogue is full of pointless questions, obvious statements and vague words such as â€Å"nice† which is repeated 15 times throughout the dialogue. It seems obvious to the audience that they are speaking simply for the sake of it, to fill the gap created by silence, as Meg often asks a question after a lull in the conversation to try and keep it going. The way some of the dialogue is repeated in the third act also emphasises the routine of Meg and Petey's lives as a married couple. Their actions also seem quite stereotypical, for example Petey, the husband, reads the paper while Meg, the wife, makes him breakfast, tidies the room, darns and goes shopping. Thus both the visual and verbal come together to show Meg and Petey as a comedic, stereotypical, old married couple. Lulu is a neighbour; she is the character who seems to care about visual appearance the most. The first time we see her in the play she starts putting on makeup and tells Stanley to take more care over his appearance. However, despite her saying that he looks â€Å"terrible† she still asks him to go for a walk with her. Thus showing that what she actually says is not always what she thinks as if she attaches so much importance to appearance she would not want to go out with him. Lulu is also attracted to Goldberg because of his verbal power, indeed she says â€Å"That was a wonderful speech† and â€Å"you're a marvellous speaker† to him. Therefore we can assume that speech is important to Lulu. The audience only finds out what happened between Lulu and Goldberg the next morning, although we are made aware that they are attracted to each other at the party when they embrace, by what they say. However, neither character says exactly what happened; we have to guess through hints that are made. Whereas the night before the two were physically very close, Lulu sitting on Goldberg's lap, in the morning Lulu keeps away from him, it says in the stage directions that she backs upstage left and retreats to the back door, thus creating a visual reminder of their separation. What is actually said is quite ambiguous; Lulu insists that Goldberg is the one at fault, comparing him to Eddie, her â€Å"first love†, saying â€Å"he wouldn't come into my bedroom at night with a briefcase† and â€Å"you made use of me by cunning when my defences were down†. However, Goldberg replies â€Å"Who opened the briefcase, me or you?† and â€Å"Who took them down?†, thus implying that Lulu can only blame herself for what happened. Despite the seriousness of this scene and Lulu's being obviously upset there is also humour when Lulu says â€Å"You taught me things a girl shouldn't know before she's been married at least three times!†. This adds some humour to the otherwise serious dialogue but makes Lulu lose her credibility. The ambiguity remains about whether Goldberg did use Lulu against her will as in previous scenes Lulu has acted in a quite experienced manner. Lulu does seem like a character who is quite sure of herself at other times; she doesn't mind saying what she thinks, for example she criticises Stanley, saying â€Å"you're a bit of a washout, aren't you?† As well as this, at the end she leaves the house without giving in to McCann and confessing. Indeed, she actually says â€Å"I know what's going on. I've got a pretty shrewd idea.† it's not certain whether this is true but either way it shows that she does possess a certain amount of intelligence as she knows Goldberg won't want people finding out what they did to Stanley. Overall, Lulu shows through what she says that she is an intelligent character but her relationship with Goldberg shows that she may act in a more experienced way than she is. Stanley is another character who shows a lot of pretence, the way he speaks and acts changes depending on the characters he is with. Throughout the entire play we wonder who he really is and what he is doing in the boarding house. In a way he plays many different roles in the play. With Meg he is a son, a boarding house guest or a angry lover, with Lulu he tries to be a â€Å"real† man, with McCann and Goldberg he tries to be strong but he soon breaks down. Indeed, it is hard to work out exactly who Stanley is without looking at each of his relationships with the other characters. When we first see Stanley, he is dressed in pyjamas and is unshaven; he could seem like a stereotypical lazy teenager, especially as he has slept in. Indeed, before we see him Meg and Petey talk about him and Meg continually calls him â€Å"the boy†. She also says that she'd rather have a boy when Petey tells her that a Lady Mary Splatt has had a baby girl. This could lead the audience to believe that Stanley is their son. When Meg goes to wake him up we do not see what happens, we simply hear laughter from Meg and shouts from Stanley, and it is not certain exactly what is happening. Perhaps Meg is tickling Stanley (something that she later threatens to do), perhaps she is taking his covers or perhaps she is doing something of a more sexual nature as when she returns she is panting and her hair is messed up. The first dialogue we see between Meg and Stanley involves Meg continuing to treat him like a child, saying he can't have his second course until he's finished his first. However, Stanley does not act like a child; he threatens to leave Meg, saying â€Å"I'll have to go down to one of those smart hotels on the front†. Later on, Stanley morphs back into a child, teasing Meg when she tells him to say sorry first, replying â€Å"Sorry first† instead of sorry, while Meg says he deserves the strap before becoming flirtatious, speaking â€Å"coyly†. The speed in which Meg changes both verbally and visually from treating Stanley like a son to a lover is quite startling, one second she is ruffling his hair and the next she is sensually stroking his arm. However, one thing remains constant, and that is Stanley's reaction to her touching him, every time he recoils or pushes her away. He also criticises her verbally, saying she isn't a good wife and doesn't know how to make tea. It is due to all this changing that the audience does not know for certain what their relationship is, we do get the impression though that they have had a sexual relationship is the past as Meg says â€Å"I've had some lovely afternoons in [your] room† and asks him to give her a kiss on page 36. It seems as though Stanley is ashamed of what happened though, which is why he treats her so badly. Stanley's relationship with Lulu is quite different. He tries to talk to her, talking about the weather in a way which echoes Meg and Petey's conversation. This makes it seem as though he has very little contact with anyone else as this is the only way he knows how to talk, an idea emphasised by Lulu asking him if he ever goes out. He also lies to her, saying he went swimming â€Å"all the way to the headland† that morning, which we know to be untrue, and asks her to go away with him but does not know where to. This dialogue shows that Stanley is socially inept as well as emphasising his lack of contact with the outside world. Stanley's relationship with McCann is hard to ascertain, we can not even be sure whether they knew each other before coming to the boarding house. Although, at the beginning of the second act McCann asks Stanley if they've met before and Stanley replies that they haven't, Stanley later goes on to say that he's â€Å"got a feeling† they've met before. They both whistle the same song, making it seem as though they do have a link. Stanley tries to act verbally powerful with McCann, mimicking Goldberg; he talks about his past and business, a theme which Goldberg made a speech about in the first act. However, Stanley soon falters in his speech, pausing and ending with the words â€Å"Do you know what I mean?† which McCann answers with an abrupt â€Å"No†. This shows the audience that McCann is not really interested in Stanley's words, and perhaps that he is not taken in by his lies. The power of speech does not seem to work well with McCann as he refuses to answer Sta nley's questions about why they are here, thus making Stanley seem quite weak, especially compared to the threatening and violent Stanley we saw with Meg in the first act. It seems that Stanley knew Goldberg, or at least of him, prior to his arrival at the boarding house as he seems afraid of him before he has even spoken to him: In act one when Meg tells him Goldberg's name he does not reply, just stays sitting still, the audience could think that this is because he is afraid as if he didn't recognise the name he would've perhaps said so when Meg asked him. He also asks McCann questions about him, although he does not say Goldberg's name but simply refers to him as â€Å"he†. Goldberg however says that he â€Å"hasn't had the pleasure† when Meg asks him if he's met Stanley, this fits with McCann's refusing to acknowledge that Stanley may have known him before: the two characters try to hide any links they may have with Stanley. Stanley also tries to make Goldberg leave, again showing his fear of him, either because he is from some kind of organisation that Stanley has run away from or because Stanley is simply afraid of â€Å"outsidersà ¢â‚¬ . Thus, Stanley shows his fear through what he says, despite never stating that he is actually afraid. Stanley's relationships with Goldberg and McCann revolve around secrecy and power. Indeed, the characters of McCann and Goldberg themselves seem to be defined by their power as well as their origins, which are shown verbally and visually McCann is a typical Irish name, and the two Christian names he is called by in the play, Dermot and Seamus, are also typically Irish. As well as this we could imagine that the character speaks with an Irish accent. There are also certain humorous things to do with McCann's â€Å"irishness†. Firstly, when Stanley asks him where he is from he replies â€Å"Where do you think?†, this could seem funny to the audience as it is plainly obvious that McCann comes from Ireland. Secondly, McCann refuses to drink Scotch whisky, pouring himself Irish whisky instead. McCann is also characterised by his physical power. It is always he who carries out physical actions, such as breaking the glasses, bringing Stanley downstairs and fighting physically with him. McCann's physical power is easy to see but this power also causes him to act like a servant as he has to carry the suitcases and the alcohol. This is a visual reminder of Goldberg's superiority to him, which is shown verbally by both characters in the play as well. For example in the first act McCann asks Goldberg many questions and needs assurance from Goldberg, making it obvious that it is he who is in charge. Unlike McCann, Goldberg is a Jewish character. He does not seem to take so much pride in his roots as McCann as he never actually mentions that he is Jewish. However, Goldberg and Simon (Simey) are typical Jewish names and throughout the play we are reminded of his origins through the use of Jewish words such as â€Å"gefilte (fish)†. His religion is also used in a humorous way when McCann says â€Å"You've always been a true christian† and Goldberg replies â€Å"In a way†, this could make the audience smile as the fact that Goldberg is Jewish is very obvious. Goldberg seems to try hard to show that he is integrated in the English â€Å"way of life†. He uses many idiomatic expressions and also creates an image of a cosy family life in the past. Goldberg is characterised by his verbal power instead of physical power. Indeed, except at one point in the play, when he tries to strangle McCann, he seems to be completely physically incapable of action; he is almost always sitting down and cannot defend himself when Stanley kicks him in the stomach during the interrogation scene. Goldberg's physical inability is contrasted with his verbal ability. Whenever Goldberg speaks in the first two acts, whether it is about Stanley, the past or something else, the other characters are in his thrall. They cannot help but listen to him, and the results of this depend on how he uses his power, for example he causes Stanley to break down by interrogating him and seduces Lulu through his speeches. Sometimes when he speaks he uses complicated words, making it hard for the other characters to understand him, such as when he â€Å"explains† to McCann what they are going to do he says â€Å"The main issue is a singular issue and quite distin ct from your previous work. Certain elements, however, might well approximate in points of procedure to some of your other activities†. It is unlikely that this explanation has helped McCann to understand. This complicated sounding explanation, however, would probably make Goldberg seem even more important to both McCann and the audience. Goldberg also uses idiomatic expressions such as â€Å"You're getting on her wick† or â€Å"I gave her a peck†; he also changes a vulgar expression into a more polite version: â€Å"You're getting on my breasts†. These expressions are used quite often in his long speeches with the occupants of the boarding house and Lulu which makes it seem that Goldberg is trying to make his language suitable for these people, while still keeping his verbal power. Goldberg's manipulation using language is particularly obvious when the lights all go out as he stops using long speeches to make people do what he wants and instead gives plain orders, such as â€Å"Everyone quiet! Help him find the torch.† He is also very capable at questioning characters, as shown by his vio lent interrogation of Stanley but also the efficient, softer interrogation of Meg on page 31. However, in the last act, Goldberg seems to lose his power: He keeps pausing and seems unsure of what he wants to say, this uncertainty climaxes with the lines: â€Å"Because I believe that the world†¦ (Vacant.)†¦.Because I believe that the world†¦ (Desperate.) †¦ BECAUSE I BELIEVE THAT THE WORLD†¦(Lost.)†¦.†. It is as though he has used up all his verbal power the night before and has none left. We also notice that Petey, unlike Lulu and Meg, talks back to Goldberg, telling him to do things, thus emphasising his loss of power. In order to get his power back, Goldberg orders McCann to blow in his mouth on page 79. This shows how despite being a powerful character, Goldberg relies on McCann to act for him and to keep him in power. Goldberg and McCann have used their verbal and visual powers not only to control Stanley but also to â€Å"break† him. By the end of the play he is incapable of speech and his appearance is completely changed. He â€Å"is dressed in a dark well-cut suit and white collar and â€Å"he is clean-shaven†. This change in Stanley's visual appearance is a sign of his inner change. Another sign of this change is his lack of comprehensible verbal reactions to Goldberg and McCann's goading him. Indeed, he simply makes noises such as â€Å"Uh-gug†¦uh-gug†¦eeehhh-gag†¦Caahh†¦Ã¢â‚¬  before visually showing his resignation by shuddering and dropping his head. Thus, the power struggles in this play, and perhaps also in real life, are shown through the verbal and the visual aspects of the play and its characters Violence and fear are two very important themes in the play that are linked to power. Pinter exhibits these themes through the verbal and the visual. Indeed, there is a sort of crescendo of violence and fear in the play involving dialogues, language and images. In the first act, the violence is kept minimal until the end, and the majority of this violence is directed from Stanley towards Meg. There are many exclamations and Stanley swears, saying â€Å"Not the bloody table†, he also â€Å"throws her arm away† when she goes to ruffle his hair. These small things soon become larger, with Stanley menacing Meg: â€Å"Tell me, Mrs Boles, when you address yourself to me, do you ever ask yourself exactly who you are talking to?† and scaring her by talking about a wheelbarrow. The last image from the act involves Stanley and Meg again, in the stage directions it says â€Å"beating [the drum] regularly, he begins to go round the table a second time. Halfway round the beat becomes erratic, uncontrolled, Meg expresses dismay. He arrives at her chair, banging the drum, his face and the drumbeat now savage and possessed.† The crescendo of the drumbeat could represent the crescendo of the violence in the play itself and this v iolent image also sets Stanley up to commit violence later on in the play. The second act opens with a menacing image; McCann tearing up strips of newspaper. We can imagine a violent tearing sound to accompany his actions. After this threatening image McCann and Stanley's conversation soon turns violent, with Stanley grabbing hold of McCann's arms and McCann speaking â€Å"savagely [and] hitting his arm†. Stanley is obviously afraid, asking McCann questions such as â€Å"Has he told you anything† in a â€Å"hissing† voice. Their dialogue ends when Goldberg enters with Petey however the violent and menacing atmosphere starts up again once Stanley is alone with Goldberg and McCann. The violence starts verbally, with many questions asked quickly and exclamations, with accusations such as â€Å"He's killed his wife!† The violent dialogue soon becomes visual as shown by the stage directions, â€Å"[Stanley] looks up slowly and kicks Goldberg in the stomach, Goldberg falls. Stanley stands. McCann seizes a chair and lifts it above his head. Stanley seizes a chair and covers his head with it. McCann and Stanley circle.† This shows how the fight with words (the interrogation) has become a physical fight. It is obvious, however, that Stanley has lost the fight as he is incapable of speech, he can only grunt and make animal sounds. It is also McCann who has the last word, shouting, â€Å"The bastard sweat pig is sweating† before the scene calms down abruptly due to Meg's arrival. The violence of the act is kept at bay for a while; however, there is a disconcerting image, which can remind us of the interrogation scene. This is when a toast is made to Stanley with the lights off and a torch shining into his face, just like a stereotypical interrogation scene. The violence of the act is continued in the game of blind man's buff; this violence is visual and is only punctuated by the characters' asking questions and their fearful exclamations. It involves Stanley, who is playing the â€Å"blind man†, first McCann breaks his glasses and Stanley treads on the drum, he then tries to strangle Meg when the lights all go out. The darkness of the stage creates more fear, both amongst the characters but also perhaps among the audience. The sounds that are heard; grunts, a drumbeat, whimpers and then a scream add to this fear and alarm. The act ends with Stanley seeming to try to rape an unconscious Lulu and then Stanley backing away against the wall while everyone else walks menacingly towards him. This is the climax of the violence and menace of the play and this image emphasises how Stanley has had a break down, while also showing his inner feelings: he hates Meg, so tries to kill her; he is attracted to Lulu but the only way he can show his â€Å"manliness† is to rape her. In the last act, there is a lot less violence than in the second. However, there are reminders of the violent second act in the broken drum and glasses. There is also a scene between Goldberg and McCann in which we see Goldberg act violently for the first time, instead of speaking violently: he yells murderously â€Å"Don't call me that! NEVER CALL ME THAT† and seizes McCann by the throat†¦ McCann also yells at Lulu â€Å"savagely† to confess. The audience can notice that the violence perpetuated in this act seems to have less meaning than in the first and second. In the first, the violence helps to characterise Stanley and make us understand what he is capable of whereas in the second it is part of McCann and Goldberg's â€Å"breaking† Stanley, but in the third act it seems to be more associated with the anger of the characters and have less of a real aim. The only violence that does have an aim is the violence that happened upstairs; this violence is mentioned by McCann and Goldberg without referring to it directly. We understand that McCann and Goldberg are actually afraid of what happened through what they say, for example McCann says on page 73 â€Å"I'm not going up there again†. This non visual violence that we are left to imagine seems worse than the violence we saw on stage because of our lack of knowledge of it. All of the visual violence in the play seems quite serious, however at times this is contrasted with humour in the characters' speech. A good example of this is during the interrogation scene in which serious questions and accusations are interspersed with comic lines and expressions, such as McCann saying â€Å"Mother defiler† followed by Goldberg asking why Stanley picks his nose. Stanley himself joins in with this humour at times, saying â€Å"No hands† when Goldberg asks him how many fingers he uses to play the piano. The verbal humour placed alongside violence and seriousness can be quite disconcerting for the spectators and could cause them to take the violence a little less seriously. Much of the characters' fear is caused by the violence of other characters, however, it is also caused by the unknown or secrecy which is shown through verbal communication, or lack of verbal communication, between characters. Stanley's fear in the first act is the main example of this, when Meg mentions the two men that are coming Stanley shows fear, through his actions and his words. He repeats things such as â€Å"It's a false alarm. It's a false alarm† and paces the room, which indicates worry. Stanley is also afraid because he doesn't know why the two men are there, something which is shown by his frantic questioning of McCann. McCann himself also worries about the unknown. We see him question Goldberg about what the job will involve and what he will have to do, his worry is shown particularly through Goldberg ‘s mentioning it. He tells him first to stop worrying and then to stop being so nervous. This shows that fear of the unknown is not simply limited to weaker characters such as Stanley but also physically strong ones; an idea which could also apply to real life. The audience itself never finds out who Goldberg and McCann are and why they are here. Indeed, much of what we know about Goldberg and is past is what he has decided to tell the other characters and we find it impossible to believe him. This is for several reasons: Firstly, he paints a picture of a good, family life which is hard to connect with his seduction of Lulu and his behaviour towards Stanley. Secondly, the way he describes his mother is almost identical to the way he describes his wife; the echoes in his description of them make it seem as though he is almost making them up. Lastly, we know Goldberg lies, for example he tells Petey that McCann is called Dermot and later on in the book he calls him Seamus, he also tells Petey that Stanley is alright. Lies seem to be quite important in this play, especially when talking about the past. Many of the characters lie to each other or at least say something which we could think was a lie. Stanley talks about being a concert pianist and his business, Goldberg talks about his family and Meg talks about hers, while Petey lies to Meg at the end about Stanley still being upstairs. Many of these lies do not seem to do any harm; in fact they seem to make the characters feel better about themselves as they become nostalgic and reflective. However, they add to the level of uncertainty which we find in the play and make it even harder for the audience to know what is going on. To conclude, Pinter takes advantage of both the verbal and the visual to emphasise certain things and explain them completely, such as the characters and their relationships, while also using them to show the themes of the play: Power, violence, fear and secrecy. He also uses it to relax the tension at times through humour but most of all it is used to create ambiguity. The audience can be sure of very few of the things that are said in this play which leads to many varied interpretations of the events and the characters. Perhaps this is what Pinter was hoping for.

Barriers to Democratization in China

This article presents and enlightens the rationale for the failure of China in establishing a democratic system. Such topic is broad and extensive apparently because it attempts to explain the natural flow of democratization with relation to China that has yet to establish a democratic system. This also endeavors to enhance the understanding of democratization process on a certain country.The whole presentation of barriers to Chinese democratization is divided into phases and provides analytical framework in the further understanding of the nature of democratization process.Such phases are consisting of several factors which serve as the subordinate topics in demonstrating the impacts of these factors on Chinese democratization. Chinese Democratization Chinese democratization is of immense importance, both practically and theoretically. Although it is only one country, China represents between one-fifth and one-fourth of the world’s population. According to Rummel (1991), â₠¬Å"due to the undemocratic systems in twentieth-century China, millions suffered from political persecution and died unnatural deaths.† For example, more than twenty million starved to death in the famine of 1959–61. As late as 1989, hundreds of unarmed civilians were mowed down in the capital city of Beijing. Democracy may not work miracles, but it can avoid such tragedies (Rummel 1991). Presenting Barriers to Chinese Democracy I. Historical Legacy and Democracy This part of the article presents the assessment of the potential impact of historical legacy on the process of democratization in China. The general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions go under this first factor.It initially looks at how some general conditions constrain Chinese political development and compares political thoughts with modern democracy and examines the way democratic or undemocratic Chinese political traditions were. Historical legacies are not of equal importance. Some a re trivial and transitory, such as people’s dress. Others are substantial and stable, such as people’s ways of treating one another. Modern democracy resulted from the interaction between Western traditions and modernization.Given China’s different historical path and its low level of modernization, its democratization process was in the grip of its historical legacies. By focusing on general conditions, political thoughts, and political traditions, this chapter suggests that China’s historical legacies pose a challenge to the democratization process. The vast territory and diverse conditions always create problems for governability and participation in traditional times. A long history tends to foster a cynical view of politics, just as a short history may facilitate an idealistic view of politics.A huge population not only decreases people’s incentive for participation, but also renders it difficult to change the rules of the game. China’s relative isolation from the West cost the Chinese the opportunity to learn from a great and dynamic civilization. All these forms formidable force of inertia that slows down and even blocks attempts to adopt new systems and habits in China. Indeed, few Western thoughts before the modern time were democratic, but the Athenian political and intellectual experiences, the Roman conception of citizenship and law, and Christianity’s conception of humanity did facilitate democracy as we know it today.By contrast, Confucianism, Legalism, Mohism, and Taoism contained some democratic elements, but none qualified as being democratic because of their failure to advocate popular sovereignty and individual liberty. As the dominant ideology in China, Confucianism was paternalistic in preaching benevolence and propriety. Despite its good intentions, its differences from democracy were huge. Kant’s remark that paternalism is the worst form of tyranny contains some truth. What further separates China from the West is their political traditions. Feudalism had dominated the West for a long time.It was characterized by its lack of equality, liberty, and a powerful central government. It deserves mentioning that not until the early 1860s were serfdom and slavery abolished in Russia and the United States, respectively. Against this historical background, the middle class in the West not only demanded equality and freedom denied by feudal systems, but also attempted to limit the rising power of the central government after the decline of feudalism. By contrast, traditional China witnessed a great deal of socioeconomic equality and freedom.Chinese political and economic systems allowed for a high level of social mobility. So the call for freedom and equality appealed less to the Chinese than to the Europeans. Compared with its European counterparts, the Chinese government was powerful. Theoretically, all the land and people belonged to the emperor. But China’s va st territory and traditional technology softened the impact of a bureaucratic empire. There were both enlightened and despotic rulers in Chinese history. When tyranny accompanied socioeconomic hardship, the Chinese exercised their right of rebellion.As a result, Chinese history seemed to be trapped in a â€Å"dynastic cycle. † Without modernization and foreign contacts, China might have found it difficult to break this cycle. II. Local Forces and Democracy During the second half of the 19th century, China experienced the decline of central power in contrast to the rise of many countries like the U. S. , Italy, and Prussia. In particular, the Taiping Rebellion which endured from 1851-64 had affected almost all the provinces in China proper, devastated its most prosperous regions, and had cost 20 to 40 million people dead.What further undermined the central power was the Nien Rebellion in the north from 1851 to 1868, the Miao Rebellion in the southwest from 1855 to 1872, and th e Moslem Rebellion in the northwest from 1862 to 1878. Collectively, these are referred to as local forces that decisively affect the democratization process in the Republican era. The establishment of the republic did not imply that the Chinese were willing or able to maintain democracy. Before the 1911 Revolution, most Chinese had no preference for democratic republicanism, and those who advocated democracy treated it less as an end than as a means to national power and wealth.But the revolution ruled out the possibility of establishing a new monarchy in China and ushered in the era of republicanism. The entire Republican era was mainly shaped by the shifting balance of power between the central government and local forces. Since the mid–nineteenth century, foreign powers and local forces had undermined the Manchu regime. During the 1911 Revolution, the independence of provinces doomed the Qing dynasty. Since the local forces continued to threaten the new republic, a strong man was needed to rule China.Yuan Shih-kai’s fight against disintegration served national interests and commanded widespread support. But his monarchical scheme discredited him, and his death created an opportunity for the rise of warlordism. During the warlord period, the central government not only lost control of local forces, but also was manipulated by powerful warlords. Against this background, the Nationalists cooperated with the Soviet Union to achieve national unification. The rise of local forces was nothing new in China. With its vast territory, regional diversity, and traditional technology, the empire always faced the danger of division.Since the respective authorities of central and local governments were not clearly defined, the central government might have too much or too little power. On balance, the former was a lesser evil than the latter. While rational rulers had little intention to kill the goose that lays the golden eggs, the lack of legitimacy motivat ed local satraps to maximize their profits. The Chinese fear of local forces appeared unwarranted in the eyes of foreigners, but it constituted a self-fulfilling prophecy. Idealizing a unitary system, many Chinese leaders would resort to violence and war for the sake of national unification.Accordingly, the fear of local forces led to war, which in turn justified people’s original fear. If the establishment of the new republic had little to do with the Chinese people’s democratic conviction, partisan conflict, domestic turmoil, and civil wars in the Republican era made the Chinese disillusioned with democracy. Indeed, democracy does not necessarily weaken state power, and no real democracy was put into practice in China. But there is no denying that the early phase of democratization tends to unleash divisive forces. Through legitimating diverse interests democracy risks undermining the central power.Historical examples abound. A weak confederation followed the America n Revolution. Fortunately, the founding fathers opted for a federal system, which struck a balance between central and local powers. Like many other countries, post-Revolution China experienced chaos and civil wars. The Revolution was intended to strengthen state power, but contributed to its further decline. The painful experience in the Republican era convinced the Chinese that a weak and divisive country needed a strong government, and that dictatorship represented a lesser evil than anarchy. III. World System and DemocracyAll countries have been dragged into the world system in the contemporary times. Unfortunately, this foreign system is unbeneficial to weaker countries and a monster that is beyond their control. It is no exaggeration, as Toynbee (1969) declares, to say that their modern history is one of their responses to foreign challenges. Before the end of World War II, China was one of the disadvantaged countries having deplorable status in the effect of world system†™s adversity to democratization processes. Without the modern world system, democratization might not have become an issue in China.However, such a system militated against the process of democratization in the Nationalist era in several ways. First, the nature of the world system was undemocratic, if not antidemocratic. What characterized this system was power politics and capitalism. The former treated might as right; the latter sought profits and ignored equality. To survive in such a world required a strong state, but not necessarily a democratic one. Given China’s low status in the world, the Chinese desired wealth and power rather than democracy.In fact, the Chinese accepted democracy, less because they embraced the value itself than because they saw it as a method to strengthen the state power. Second, liberal democracy was less attractive than it is today. Internal disturbance and foreign threats in 1930s provided the best justification for dictatorship. No wonder t hat the Nationalist government and many Chinese intellectuals found dictatorship both necessary and desirable. Third, the Japanese aggression made the Chinese democratization almost irrelevant.Indeed, the Sino-Japanese War facilitated partisan cooperation, stimulated Chinese nationalism, and helped democratize the world system. But amid foreign aggression, national survival took precedence over the call for democracy and human rights. Equally important, the war catapulted the Communists into formidable power and exacerbated socioeconomic problems the Nationalists had never been able to handle. As a result, a democratic solution to China’s political, economic, and social problems became difficult, if not impossible. Lastly, the Cold War system affected Chinese political development.The victory of the Soviet Union in World War II and the expansion of socialism into East Europe boosted the reputation of socialism in comparison with liberal democracy. Both superpowers wanted to i ncrease their own influence in China and sided with either the Nationalists or the Communists. It was no exaggeration to say that the evolution of the world system made possible the Communist triumph. IV. Socialist Values and Democracy Although the Mao era did well in promoting socioeconomic equality and deserved credit for encouraging mass participation, socialist China did not qualify as democracy as we know it.The one-party rule excluded the possibility for citizens to select rulers. Civil and political rights were ignored, if not flagrantly violated. The house-registration system and class label contravened the principles of liberty and equality. Millions suffered from political persecution. Even among the party itself, powerful struggles were frequent and cruel. What was worse, the Communists did not deliver on their own material promise. Living standards in Maoist China barely increased. In explaining the lack of democracy in China, one cannot ignore the role of Mao.It was Mao who hastened the socialist transformation, led the AntiRightists Campaign, initiated the Great Leap, encouraged the people’s communes, reversed the sensible guidelines of the Eighth Congress, and launched the Cultural Revolution. Without him, Chinese socialism would have taken different shape. But even without him, there would have been little chance for socialist China to be democratic. Authors like Berger (1993) and Almond (1991) believe that â€Å"the reality is that although countries with market economies have not necessarily been democratic, all democracies have coexisted with market economies†.Advocates of socialism see no contradiction between socialism and democracy. Ralph Miliband, for example, maintains that â€Å"socialist democracy would embody many of the features of liberal democracy, including the rule of law, the separation of powers, civil liberties, political pluralism, and a vibrant civil society, but it would give them much more effective meaning . It would seek the democratization of the state and of society at all levels (Miliband p. 117). This theoretical possibility has not yet translated into reality.C. B. MacPherson is more sophisticated in arguing that although existing socialist countries do not guarantee political freedom, this does not imply that socialism inevitably conflicts with democracy. He attributes the socialist failure in this respect to three specific factors. According to MacPherson (1973), â€Å"socialist countries were established in underdeveloped countries; they faced the hostility of Western powers; and their birth in revolution or civil war entailed the restriction of freedom. †The conflict between socialism and democracy cannot merely be explained by historical circumstances, but should be explained by the nature of both socialist revolution and the socialist system. By aiming at abolishing private property, socialist revolution inevitably invites the strongest opposition from all ruling an d propertied classes. As a result, socialists have to rely on violence to achieve their objective. Moreover, many scholars, like Belden (1949) and Talmon (1960) find the socialist preference for collective over individual rights to be at the root of totalitarianism.As early as 1848, Tocqueville stated that â€Å"democracy extends the sphere of individual freedom; socialism restricts it. Democracy attaches all possible value to each man; socialism makes each man a mere agent, a mere number. Democracy and socialism have nothing in common but one word: equality. But notice the difference: as quoted in Hayek (1972) that â€Å"while democracy seeks equality in liberty, socialism seeks equality in restraint and servitude. † The dictatorship of the proletariat may intend to serve the vast majority of the people, but it bodes ill for democracy and human rights.Lenin defines dictatorship as â€Å"nothing more or less than authority untrammeled by any laws, absolutely unrestricted by any rules whatever, and based directly on force† (Lenin p. 353). Socialists’ emphasis on class character ignores humanity and individuality, and their call for class struggle damages the social fabric. By dehumanizing class enemies, they tolerate and even extol the abuse of human rights. Not least of all, even if socialist rulers are well intentioned, a socialist economy provides the best pedestal for despotism.Public ownership and planned economy enable an all-powerful state to control people’s livelihood, to limit their freedom, and to foster their passivity and fear. V. Economic Development and Democracy Deng Xiaoping’s Era Deng’s reform policy was less political democratization than economic development. Nevertheless, close relations between these two processes determined that he had an important role to play in the process of democratization (Shambaugh 1995). Economic development and political democratization are both desirable, but they somet imes compete and even conflict with each other.Deng’s preference for economic development over political democratization was understandable. Human beings are more economic animals than political ones. Democracy appeals less to poor people in poor countries, and Deng’s political liberalization further decreased the Chinese desire for democracy. Deng first instituted the responsibility system in the countryside and later abolished the commune system. At the same time, he did his best to integrate China into the outside world. The success in rural reform shifted Deng’s attention to urban reform.Despite its limitations, the economic reform increased the people’s living standard, boosted the private sector, substituted a market economy for a planned economy, and internationalized the Chinese economy. All these had positive impacts on democratization, because they reduced the state power over the society, expanded an autonomous economic realm, decreased the eli te’s interest in seeking political power, and motivated better-off and better-educated people to demand more freedom and rights.Economic reforms, however, could not be deepened without political reform. Twice Deng wanted to institute political reforms, but they fell short of expectations. Deng never embraced liberal democracy. For him, democracy represented a means to economic development. When it jeopardized stability and unity, it would be abandoned. But Deng’s political reform received less credit than it deserves. Elections were permitted at local levels. Legal reforms moved China closer to the rule of law. With his administrative reform, old cadres gradually gave way to new technocrats.Although the Chinese did not enjoy positive freedom to participate in government affairs, they were granted negative freedom in their social and economic life. In short, Deng’s political reform represented a change in system rather than a change of system, and was characteriz ed not by democratization but by liberalization and institutionalization. Deng’s economic reform was a two-edged sword, providing more legitimacy to the Communist rule, and causing social unrest and public protests. The 1989 Tiananmen Incident reflected and reinforced the legitimacy crisis.The mass protests originated from people’s dissatisfaction with their economic situations and social injustice, but did not mean that they wanted to overthrow Communist rule. Although the repression temporarily stabilized the situation, the legitimacy crisis became much severer. Like most authoritarian rulers, Deng had no choice but to rely on further economic development to regain legitimacy. Since then, Chinese leaders and people have followed the East Asian model, putting development before democratization.Conclusion All of the above factors presented are apparently legitimate and convincing when it comes to the realities happening in China. These barriers are enough to provide an swers to the issue of China democratization. This presentation provides knowledge with such potential factors and significantly deepens our knowledge of the nature of democratization process in a selected country. 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